Level 1: Foundations of Complex Writing
Level 2: Expanding Sentence Range
Level 3: Cohesion and Flow
Level 4: Advanced Structures
Level 5: Mastery and Exam Practice
Parallel Structure and Ellipsis
Use parallel grammatical structure for balance and clarity; use ellipsis and substitution to avoid redundancy.
3 lessons · 16 exercises
Lessons
3Parallel Structure in Lists and Comparisons
5 exercises · 25 min
Key structures
X, Y, and Z (all same form: nouns, verbs, gerunds, or clauses)
Both X and Y / Not only X but also Y (parallel form)
Parallel structure means using the same grammatical form for elements that carry equal weight in a sentence. When you write a list, a series, or a pair of ideas, each item must match the others in form. If the first item is a noun, every item must be a noun. If it is a bare infinitive, every item must be a bare infinitive. If it is a gerund phrase, every item must be a gerund phrase.
Consider this sentence: 'The policy aims to reduce inflation, stabilise employment, and promoting growth.' Something feels unbalanced — and it is. 'To reduce' and 'stabilise' are both bare infinitives following 'aims to,' but 'promoting' is a gerund. The sentence breaks the pattern. The correct version is: 'The policy aims to reduce inflation, stabilise employment, and promote growth.' Now all three items share the same form.
The same principle applies with paired conjunctions. When you use 'not only...but also,' 'both...and,' 'either...or,' or 'neither...nor,' the elements on each side must match. For example: 'The reform not only reduced costs but also improved access.' Both 'reduced' and 'improved' are past tense verbs — the structure is balanced.
Why does this matter for your exam score? In both IELTS and PTE writing, Coherence and Cohesion is a core scoring criterion. Parallel structure creates rhythm in your writing, making your arguments easier to follow. It also signals to the examiner that you have command of grammatical range. A Band 7 or PTE 79 writer demonstrates consistent control of complex structures, and parallelism is one of the clearest ways to show that control.
There are three key situations where parallel structure is essential: in lists of three or more items, with correlative conjunctions (not only...but also, both...and, either...or, neither...nor), and in comparisons (more X than Y, as X as Y). Before you write any list, identify the grammatical form of the first item and ensure every subsequent item matches it.
The new urban planning initiative focuses on reducing traffic congestion, expanding public transport networks, and creating pedestrian-friendly zones.
Three gerund phrases follow 'on' — 'reducing,' 'expanding,' and 'creating' — maintaining perfect parallel form. The writer chose gerunds because they follow the preposition 'on,' which requires a noun or gerund. This structure gives the sentence clarity and a sense of comprehensive, well-planned action.
Renewable energy sources not only reduce greenhouse gas emissions but also create long-term employment opportunities in rural communities.
'Not only...but also' connects two verb phrases — 'reduce' and 'create' — both in the bare infinitive form. The parallel structure emphasises the dual benefit of renewable energy, strengthening the writer's argument by presenting two outcomes as equally significant.
A well-designed education policy should achieve three outcomes: equipping students with critical thinking skills, preparing them for a rapidly changing job market, and fostering a genuine enthusiasm for lifelong learning. By addressing all three dimensions, the policy would produce graduates who are not merely employable but intellectually curious.
The three gerund phrases ('equipping,' 'preparing,' 'fostering') create a powerful triadic rhythm after the colon. The parallel cleft 'not merely X but Y' in the follow-up sentence reinforces the balanced argument. This combination of parallel forms at sentence level creates cohesion and persuasive force, demonstrating Band 7-level grammatical control.
(When items in a list share the same level of abstraction, keep them in the same form. Mixing a nominalised phrase ('the building of') with simple nouns ('education,' 'healthcare') breaks parallelism. All items should be simple nouns.)
(In 'not only...but also' constructions, do not repeat the subject in the second part when both clauses share the same subject. This error is common among speakers of languages where correlative conjunctions require explicit subject marking in each clause.)
(After 'expected to,' all items must be bare infinitives. 'Conducting' (a gerund) breaks the parallel pattern with 'write' and 'make.')
Exercises
1. The new regulation improves workplace safety.
2. The new regulation reduces operational costs.
Successful applicants must demonstrate analytical thinking, the ability to communicate effectively, and that they can work independently.
→ Rewrite with all three items as noun phrases.The initiative is designed to improve access to education, reducing inequality, and the creation of employment opportunities.
→ Rewrite with all three items as bare infinitives after 'to.'Ellipsis and Substitution
4 exercises · 25 min
Key structures
Subject + verb, and subject + Ø (omitted repeated verb)
X verb, and so does Y (substitution for repeated verb phrase)
The + noun → the one/ones, that/those (nominal substitution)
Academic writing demands precision, but it also demands economy. When you repeat the same noun or verb phrase multiple times in a paragraph, your writing becomes clunky and difficult to read. Two powerful cohesion tools solve this problem: ellipsis and substitution.
Ellipsis means leaving out words that the reader can understand from context. Instead of writing 'Japan invested in solar energy, and Germany invested in solar energy too,' you can write 'Japan invested in solar energy, and Germany did too' — or even more concisely, 'Japan invested in solar energy, and Germany Ø.' The omitted verb phrase is recovered from the first clause. There are three main types of ellipsis in academic writing: verb phrase ellipsis ('The urban literacy rate has increased, but the rural rate has not Ø'), noun phrase ellipsis ('Some students prefer group work; others Ø prefer individual study'), and clause ellipsis ('If possible Ø, governments should invest in early childhood education').
Substitution means replacing a repeated word or phrase with a shorter pro-form. The most common substitution words in academic English are: one/ones for countable nouns ('The education system in Singapore differs from the one in the United States'), that/those for noun phrases ('The unemployment rate in rural areas is higher than that in urban centres'), do/does/did for verb phrases ('Finland invests more in teacher training than most countries do'), and so/not for clauses ('Will the policy succeed? Experts believe so').
Both IELTS and PTE reward cohesion — the ability to connect ideas smoothly without unnecessary repetition. Mastering ellipsis and substitution makes your writing tighter and more sophisticated, directly contributing to a higher band in Coherence and Cohesion and supporting your Grammatical Range score. The key test is simple: if you can remove or replace a repeated word and the meaning stays clear, you should.
The literacy rate in urban centres has improved dramatically over the past decade, but the rate in rural regions has not.
The verb phrase 'improved dramatically over the past decade' is omitted after 'not' because the reader can recover it from the first clause. This ellipsis avoids repetition and keeps the sentence concise. A less experienced writer would have repeated the full verb phrase, creating a wordy and clumsy sentence.
The housing policies of Scandinavian countries are generally more progressive than those of most other European nations.
'Those' substitutes for 'the housing policies,' avoiding the repetition of a long noun phrase. This nominal substitution is standard in academic comparative writing and creates a clean, efficient sentence. The alternative — repeating 'the housing policies of' — is unnecessarily cumbersome.
South Korea has invested heavily in digital education infrastructure, and Singapore has done so as well. Neither country, however, has seen equivalent improvements in rural areas. In both cases, the gap between urban and rural provision remains significant.
This paragraph uses multiple cohesion devices. 'Done so' substitutes for 'invested heavily in digital education infrastructure.' 'Neither' avoids repeating the two country names. 'Both cases' refers back to the shared situation. The combined effect is a paragraph that flows smoothly without redundancy, demonstrating a Band 7 level of cohesion.
(Use 'that' as a nominal substitution to avoid repeating 'the literacy rate.' Without substitution, the sentence sounds repetitive and unsophisticated. This error is particularly common among speakers of languages that prefer explicit repetition over pro-forms.)
(When using 'do' as a verbal substitution, it must be followed by 'so' to refer to the previously mentioned action. 'Do' alone is incomplete in this context.)
(Use 'those' to substitute for the repeated noun phrase 'the exam preparation strategies.' Without this substitution, the sentence is unnecessarily long and difficult to process.)
Exercises
1. The unemployment rate in coastal regions has fallen by 4% over the past year.
2. The unemployment rate in inland regions has remained largely unchanged.
The literacy rate in urban areas has increased significantly in recent years. The literacy rate in rural areas, however, has not increased significantly. This gap in literacy rates between urban and rural areas suggests that educational investment is unevenly distributed. Governments should address the gap in literacy rates by investing more in rural education.
min: 40 words
max: 70 words
at least one instance of ellipsis
at least one instance of substitution (that/those/one/ones/do/so)
at least one pronoun used for cohesion
Parallel Structure in Essay Paragraphs
3 exercises · 25 min
Key structures
It is not X that... but Y that... (parallel cleft)
The policy aims to X, to Y, and to Z (parallel infinitives)
So far, you have learned to apply parallel structure at the sentence level — in lists, pairs, and comparisons. Now it is time to scale up. In academic essays, parallel structure is not just a sentence-level tool; it is a paragraph-level strategy that creates rhythm, emphasis, and persuasive force.
Consider the body paragraph you might write for an IELTS Task 2 essay about education policy. Your supporting sentences need to build a coherent argument. If each sentence follows a different grammatical pattern, the paragraph feels scattered and unfocused. But if you deliberately choose a consistent grammatical form for your key points, the paragraph gains momentum and authority.
Two particularly effective paragraph-level patterns are:
1. Parallel cleft sentences: 'It is not the curriculum that needs reform, but the teaching methods.' This structure uses 'It is...that...' to create emphasis, and pairing two clefts in parallel form gives the argument rhetorical weight. For example: 'It is not the quantity of funding that determines educational quality, but the efficiency with which it is allocated.' This pattern is highly effective for presenting a nuanced position in IELTS Task 2 essays.
2. Parallel infinitives in policy recommendations: 'The government should aim to invest in early childhood education, to reduce class sizes, and to increase teacher salaries.' This structure is common in the conclusion or recommendation section of both IELTS and PTE essays. Each 'to + verb' phrase signals a distinct action, and the parallel form makes the list feel systematic and authoritative.
You can also combine parallel structure with discourse markers from Unit 1 for maximum effect. For instance: 'Furthermore, the policy aims to expand access to healthcare, to modernise transport infrastructure, and to attract foreign investment.' Here, 'Furthermore' signals addition, and the three parallel infinitives deliver the content with clarity and rhythm.
A word of caution: parallel structure is powerful, but overuse can make your writing sound mechanical. Use it deliberately — for your strongest points, for your topic sentences, and for your conclusions. Vary your sentence structure elsewhere to maintain a natural academic voice.
It is not the availability of technology that limits educational progress in developing countries, but the absence of trained educators who can integrate it effectively into the classroom.
This parallel cleft sentence uses 'It is not X that... but Y...' to create a strong contrast. The structure forces the reader to reconsider a common assumption — that technology access is the main barrier — and redirects attention to a less obvious issue. The cleft construction adds rhetorical weight to the argument, which is especially valuable in IELTS Task 2 essays where the writer needs to present a nuanced position. This kind of structure pushes towards Band 7+ in Grammatical Range.
To tackle the housing crisis, the city council has proposed to increase the supply of affordable homes, to streamline planning permission processes, and to offer financial incentives to first-time buyers.
Three parallel infinitives ('to increase,' 'to streamline,' 'to offer') create a clear, systematic presentation of policy actions. The infinitive form signals intention and purpose, which is appropriate for recommendations. The parallel structure makes each action feel equally important, presenting a comprehensive solution rather than a single measure. This pattern is directly applicable to PTE Write Essay and IELTS Task 2 conclusion paragraphs.
Urban air pollution remains a persistent challenge in many cities. Primarily caused by vehicle emissions and industrial activity, it affects millions of residents daily. Consequently, governments must take decisive action: investing in cleaner public transport, enforcing stricter emission standards, and incentivising the adoption of electric vehicles. Only through such a multifaceted approach can lasting improvements be achieved.
This paragraph moves from problem to solution, using a gerund list ('investing,' 'enforcing,' 'incentivising') to present parallel policy measures. The gerund form connects back to 'take decisive action' — the measures are presented as ways of taking action. The inverted final sentence ('Only through such...can lasting improvements be achieved') adds emphasis and variety, preventing the parallelism from becoming monotonous. Note how the discourse marker 'Consequently' (from Unit 1) is combined with the parallel structure for maximum cohesion.
(After 'aims to,' all items must be bare infinitives. 'Streamlining' (a gerund) breaks the parallel structure with 'increase' and 'attract.' In longer lists, it is easy to lose track of the base form — always check the first item and match the rest.)
(In a parallel cleft sentence ('It is not X that...but Y'), the second 'it is' is unnecessary and disrupts the parallel structure. The cleft marker 'It is' applies to both sides of the contrast. This error is common among speakers of languages that require explicit subject marking in each clause.)
(After 'recommended,' all items should share the same grammatical form. The original mixes a gerund ('investing'), an infinitive ('to reduce'), and a noun phrase ('stricter emissions regulations'). The corrected version uses gerund phrases throughout.)
Exercises
To reduce childhood obesity, the government should implement three measures. First, it should ban junk food advertising during children's television programming. Second, it should require schools to provide nutritionally balanced meals. Third, it should fund community sports programmes in underserved areas. Only by addressing diet, education, and physical activity together can the problem be effectively tackled.
1. What grammatical form do the three main policy recommendations take?
2. What is the effect of the parallel structure on the reader?
3. What parallel structure appears in the final sentence, and what rhetorical device accompanies it?
Some people believe that universities should focus solely on academic subjects. Others argue that practical skills should also be part of the curriculum. Discuss both views and give your opinion.
min: 70 words
max: 90 words
a parallel list of three or more items
one correlative conjunction pair (not only...but also, both...and, either...or, neither...nor)
a concluding sentence that synthesises the argument
Unit Assessment
4Test your understanding of this unit before moving on.
Some people believe that the best way to reduce crime is to increase the length of prison sentences. To what extent do you agree or disagree?
min: 60 words
max: 80 words
a parallel list of three or more items OR a correlative conjunction pair
at least one instance of ellipsis or substitution
a topic sentence with a clear claim
Technology is changing education. Students can now learn online. Teachers can use digital tools. The government should support technology in schools. Technology makes learning more accessible. Technology also makes learning more flexible. Students in rural areas benefit from technology. Students in cities also benefit from technology.